Objectives Romanesque Art
During the eleventh century, a growing spirit of religious enthusiasm resulted in increased pilgrimage traffic, and the crusades to liberate the Holy Land. Large churches were constructed to house relics and accommodate visitors who sought the spiritual benefits of pilgrimage. The Mediterranean trade routes were reopened and new towns sprang up. Slowly, as architects experimented with stone vaulting and new floor plans, regional variations of the pilgrimage church appeared. Large-scale sculpture revived and Romanesque painting continued the pictorial tradition found in manuscript illumination and mosaics.
After researching the Romanesque period of art, you should be able to:
· Identify the characteristics of the pilgrimage church.
· Define the importance of the ribbed groin vault and pointed arch.
· Trace the reappearance of large scale sculpture along the pilgrimage routes.
· Describe the development of painting and manuscript illumination.
· Romanesque architecture developed, with regional variations, throughout western Europe almost simultaneously; it was tied to the religious zeal which followed the turn of the millennium.
· Romanesque Europe, c.1050-1200, witnessed a growth of trade and urbanization.
Architecture
· In France, "pilgrimage type" churches included a nave, side aisles, transept and apse with radiating chapels. An ambulatory within the apse connected the inner aisles. Vaults are used with interior bay articulations. The interior spatial design of these churches is "readable" from the exterior.
· Pointed arches, derived from Islamic architecture, gave new aesthetic and structural possibilities to Romanesque churches.
· "Hall churches," without reinforcing arches, offered a continuous surface for interior murals.
· Innovations in Norman churches include a re-defined westwork and a novel interior vault articulation.
· The cathedral complex at Pisa, Italy, including the Leaning Tower, reflects the "classical heritage" of the Tuscan Romanesque style.
Sculpture
· The revival of monumental stone sculpture during the Romanesque period centered around the entrances to churches. The purpose of this sculpture was to appeal to the lay worshiper.Romanesque sculpture witnessed the use of distinct artistic personalities, such as Giselbertus, Wilgelmo and Antelami.
· Figurative Romanesque sculpture included a range of styles from a more "Roman" flavor to an intense, nervous linearity which reflects the manuscript and metalwork traditions.
Painting and Metalwork
· The traditions of painting and metalwork during the Romanesque period continued the stylistic energies of Carolingian and Ottonian painting.
· The Carmina Burana expresses a secular interest in nature; this is different from the more usual religious orientation of manuscripts.
Key Terms/Names
ambulatory
jamb figure
apse
lintel
apsidal chapel
nave
archivolt
pier
bay
pilgrimage choir
buttress
pilgrimage type church
clerestory
rib vault
compound pier
side aisle
gallery
transverse arch
groin vault
triforium
hall church
tympanum
jamb
column
Discussion Points
· What was the purpose of Romanesque tympanum sculpture?
· How do the sculptures of Benedetto Antelami respond to the Classical tradition?
· What regional variations are prevalent in the Romanesque Church architecture of Lombardy, Germany and the Low Countries, and Tuscany?
· Discuss the role of women as patrons of art and as artists during the late Middle Ages.
http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/romanesque_arch.html
http://www.efn.org/~russelln/art.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/medny/cloister1.html
http://titan.iwu.edu/~callahan/autun-nef-e.html
http://www.trabel.com/tournai/tournai-cathedral.htm
http://panograph.free.fr/BayeuxTapestry.html
http://toisondor.byu.edu/dscriptorium/dscriptorium.html
Monday, December 10, 2007
Estruscan Art Notes (web)
Etruscan art - Before the days of ancient Rome's greatness, Italy was the home of a nation called Etruria, whose people we call the Etruscans. Its civilization prospered between 950 and 300 BCE. in northwestern Italy — in a region between the Arno River (which runs through Pisa and Florence) and the Tiber (which runs through Rome). These people rose to prosperity and power, then disappeared, leaving behind many unanswered questions concerning their origin and their culture. Because little Etruscan literature remains and the language of inscriptions on their monuments has been only partially deciphered, scholars have gained most of their knowledge of the Etruscans from studying the remains of their buildings, monuments, vast tombs, and the objects they left behind, notably bronze and terra cotta sculptures and polychrome ceramics.
Among theories about the Etruscans' origins are the possibilities that they migrated from Greece, or from somewhere beyond Greece. Perhaps they traveled down from the Alps. Or, as their pre-Indo-European language might suggest, they may have been a people indiginous to today's Tuscany who suddenly acquired the tools for rapid development. The uncertainty is held unresolved.
Theirs was an area of good farmland, forests and mineral resources, all of which the Etruscans exploited skillfully. In time, they became traders, their mariners often doubling up as pirates. And as wealth grew, a social pecking order followed, with a powerful aristocracy living in stone palaces and their serfs occupying wooden huts.
Theirs was not, however, a centralized society dominated by a single leader or a single imperial city. Rather, towns and hill-top villages (many of which survive to this day, albeit with few traces of their Etruscan origins) appear to have enjoyed considerable autonomy. But they spoke the same language, which also existed in a written form. Further, their religious rituals, military practices and social customs were largely similar. For their Greek contemporaries and Roman successors, the Etruscans were clearly a different ethnic group.
Cremation and the burial of ashes in clay urns was a common practice in this area before the advent of the Etruscan era. Among the objects we have that tell us much about the Etruscans are their cinerary urns.
Roman Art- The Romans were a practical people: in their original works, observation was key; portrait sculptures (or at least, the heads of) are often meticulously detailed and unidealized. Portraits of Roman emperors, however, were often used for propagandistic purposes and included ideological messages in the pose, accouterments, or costume of the figure. The Romans also depicted warriors and heroic adventures, in the spirit of the Greeks who came before them. While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary mode. Roman reliefs of battle scenes like those on the Column of Trajan are useful for the first-hand representation of military costumes, etc. Another major contribution of Roman art is the use of concrete in architecture. Buildings like the Flavian Amphitheater (or Colosseum) could never have been constructed with previous architectural means.
While the traditional view of Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, copied, or even outright stole Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculpture we know of today is in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis as indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche of Greek, Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism is the hallmark of much of Roman art.
Greek orders
There are two distinct orders in ancient Greek architecture: Doric and Ionic. These two were adopted by the Romans, as was the Corinthian order. The Corinthian capital, however, was modified by the Romans. The adaptation of the Greek orders took place in the first century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been consistently used in neo-classical Western architecture.
Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earlier order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic order in eastern Greece and the Doric order in the west and mainland.
Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years.
[edit]
Doric order
Main article: Doric order.
The Doric order of the Parthenon
The Doric order originated on the mainland and western Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round capitals (tops) and no base. With only four to eight diameters in height, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square.
Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the capital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs.
The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. They instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders.
[edit]
Ionic order
Main article: Ionic order.
The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a large base and two opposed volutes (also called scrolls) in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg-and-dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori which are separated by a scotia.
The Ionic order is also marked by an entasis, a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic order is nine or lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. It is also noteworthy to contemplate the use of the compass in the design of this order.
[edit]
Corinthian order
Main article: Corinthian order.
The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with two rows of acanthus leaves and four scrolls. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the five orders.
The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high.
Designed by Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer Vitruvius in the 1st century BC.
[edit]
Roman orders
The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the superimposed order. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey.
The Colossal order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories.
[edit]
Tuscan order
Main article: Tuscan order
The Tuscan order in Andrea Palladio, Quattro Libri di Architettura, 1570
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaptation of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.
[edit]
Composite order
Main article: Composite order
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.
Among theories about the Etruscans' origins are the possibilities that they migrated from Greece, or from somewhere beyond Greece. Perhaps they traveled down from the Alps. Or, as their pre-Indo-European language might suggest, they may have been a people indiginous to today's Tuscany who suddenly acquired the tools for rapid development. The uncertainty is held unresolved.
Theirs was an area of good farmland, forests and mineral resources, all of which the Etruscans exploited skillfully. In time, they became traders, their mariners often doubling up as pirates. And as wealth grew, a social pecking order followed, with a powerful aristocracy living in stone palaces and their serfs occupying wooden huts.
Theirs was not, however, a centralized society dominated by a single leader or a single imperial city. Rather, towns and hill-top villages (many of which survive to this day, albeit with few traces of their Etruscan origins) appear to have enjoyed considerable autonomy. But they spoke the same language, which also existed in a written form. Further, their religious rituals, military practices and social customs were largely similar. For their Greek contemporaries and Roman successors, the Etruscans were clearly a different ethnic group.
Cremation and the burial of ashes in clay urns was a common practice in this area before the advent of the Etruscan era. Among the objects we have that tell us much about the Etruscans are their cinerary urns.
Roman Art- The Romans were a practical people: in their original works, observation was key; portrait sculptures (or at least, the heads of) are often meticulously detailed and unidealized. Portraits of Roman emperors, however, were often used for propagandistic purposes and included ideological messages in the pose, accouterments, or costume of the figure. The Romans also depicted warriors and heroic adventures, in the spirit of the Greeks who came before them. While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary mode. Roman reliefs of battle scenes like those on the Column of Trajan are useful for the first-hand representation of military costumes, etc. Another major contribution of Roman art is the use of concrete in architecture. Buildings like the Flavian Amphitheater (or Colosseum) could never have been constructed with previous architectural means.
While the traditional view of Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, copied, or even outright stole Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculpture we know of today is in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis as indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche of Greek, Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism is the hallmark of much of Roman art.
Greek orders
There are two distinct orders in ancient Greek architecture: Doric and Ionic. These two were adopted by the Romans, as was the Corinthian order. The Corinthian capital, however, was modified by the Romans. The adaptation of the Greek orders took place in the first century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been consistently used in neo-classical Western architecture.
Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earlier order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic order in eastern Greece and the Doric order in the west and mainland.
Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years.
[edit]
Doric order
Main article: Doric order.
The Doric order of the Parthenon
The Doric order originated on the mainland and western Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round capitals (tops) and no base. With only four to eight diameters in height, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square.
Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the capital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs.
The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. They instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders.
[edit]
Ionic order
Main article: Ionic order.
The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a large base and two opposed volutes (also called scrolls) in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg-and-dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori which are separated by a scotia.
The Ionic order is also marked by an entasis, a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic order is nine or lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. It is also noteworthy to contemplate the use of the compass in the design of this order.
[edit]
Corinthian order
Main article: Corinthian order.
The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with two rows of acanthus leaves and four scrolls. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the five orders.
The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high.
Designed by Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer Vitruvius in the 1st century BC.
[edit]
Roman orders
The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the superimposed order. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey.
The Colossal order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories.
[edit]
Tuscan order
Main article: Tuscan order
The Tuscan order in Andrea Palladio, Quattro Libri di Architettura, 1570
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaptation of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.
[edit]
Composite order
Main article: Composite order
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.
Ancient Near Eastern Art Notes (Janson)
Egypt and the city-states of Mesopotamia developed contemporaneously, but geography tended to discourage unification of the latter under a single head. The inhabitants of Sumer created a written language, temple architecture, and a sculptural tradition. Thereafter, as one city-state declined another achieved ascendancy resulting in the Babylonian, Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian cultures. The chapter concludes with an investigation of the art of the foreigners known as Persians.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· Understand the importance of a written language.
· Identify the main architectural and sculptural forms of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Neo-Babylonians.
· Identify the animal style.
Enumerate the strengths of Persian art.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· Understand the importance of a written language.
· Identify the main architectural and sculptural forms of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Neo-Babylonians.
· Identify the animal style.
Enumerate the strengths of Persian art.
Egyptian Art Notes and Links (Janson)
Egyptian Image Links from Pharaohs on the Web
http://www.geocities.com/bourbonstreet/5809/picture.html
Home Page Pharaohs on the Web
http://www.geocities.com/bourbonstreet/5809/index.html
A. The Old Kingdom Information http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/OLD.HTM
1. Hierakonpolis
Information about Hierakonpolis.
2. Palette of Narmer
Image of Palette of King Narmer.
3. The Third Dynasty
a. King Djoser
Funerary floor plan of the step pyramid of King Djoser.
b. Mastabas
Two images of step pyramid and mastaba.
4. Fourth Dynasty
NOVA site for the Pyramids at Giza.
Images of the Great Sphinx at Giza.
5. Portraiture and Images
Various images, including Seated scribe.
Image of the bust of Vizier Ankh-haf.
Images of paintings from the Tomb of Nebamun from the British Museum.
B. The Middle Kingdom
Image of the face of Senwosret III.
C. The New Kingdom
a. Temple of Hatshepsut
Image of the funerary temple of Hatshepsut.
b. Temple at Luxor
Image of Temple at Luxor.
Images of the Temple complex of Amun-Mut.
Map of Temple at Luxor.
http://www.geocities.com/bourbonstreet/5809/picture.html
Home Page Pharaohs on the Web
http://www.geocities.com/bourbonstreet/5809/index.html
A. The Old Kingdom Information http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/OLD.HTM
1. Hierakonpolis
Information about Hierakonpolis.
2. Palette of Narmer
Image of Palette of King Narmer.
3. The Third Dynasty
a. King Djoser
Funerary floor plan of the step pyramid of King Djoser.
b. Mastabas
Two images of step pyramid and mastaba.
4. Fourth Dynasty
NOVA site for the Pyramids at Giza.
Images of the Great Sphinx at Giza.
5. Portraiture and Images
Various images, including Seated scribe.
Image of the bust of Vizier Ankh-haf.
Images of paintings from the Tomb of Nebamun from the British Museum.
B. The Middle Kingdom
Image of the face of Senwosret III.
C. The New Kingdom
a. Temple of Hatshepsut
Image of the funerary temple of Hatshepsut.
b. Temple at Luxor
Image of Temple at Luxor.
Images of the Temple complex of Amun-Mut.
Map of Temple at Luxor.
Prehistoric Art Notes and Links (Janson)
A. The Old Stone Age
1. Cave Art
a. Chauvet
Chauvet: Images.
b. Altamira & Lascaux
Lascaux: Two images of horse and deer.
Standing Bison image of Altamira. and a detailed description of the cave.
University of Pennsylvania site on the discovery of Altamira , text only.
Many images of Lascaux.
2. Carved and Painted Objects
http://www.netserves.com/moca/lectures/skuzpale.htm
Horse at Vogelherd cave
http://faculty.evansville.edu/rl29/art105/img/willendorf_venus.jpg
-Venus of Willendorf-carved limestone, c. 30,000-15,000 BC. Because of the importance of fertility, (infant mortality rates were high making it a necessity to have many children for survival) probably a fertility symbol. Done in the round versus in relief.
Image of the reindeer bone.
B. The New Stone Age
a. Jericho
http://faculty.evansville.edu/rl29/art105/img/jericho_skull.jpg
The Ancient Near East in the Neolithic Era (c. 7000-4500/4000 BC)
-transition from a hunter/gatherer society to an agrarian society.
Jericho -Oldest known city-8500-7500 BC. Jericho skulls had replications of the deceased sculpted onto the skull. Ancestor-worship. residents of Jericho buried dead family members under floor of household.
b. Catal Huyuk
Article on Catal Huyuk.
C. Neolithic Europe
http://www.netaxs.com/~tdo/trypil.html
http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/chariots/StrettwegDescription.html
http://ccwf.cc.utexas.edu/~cmw/1995/Basse-Yutz.htmla
http://www.sfu.ca/archaeology/museum/britain/archbr/graphics/dolmen.html
Dolmens and cromlechs
http://exn.ca/mysticplaces/Stonehenge.asp
http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/aburnham/eng/
http://web.infinito.it/utenti/m/malta_mega_temples/indxfram.html
Images from Easter Island.
Petroglyphs of Easter Island.
D. Neolithic America
http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/ancestors/woodland.html
http://greatserpentmound.com/
1. Cave Art
a. Chauvet
Chauvet: Images.
b. Altamira & Lascaux
Lascaux: Two images of horse and deer.
Standing Bison image of Altamira. and a detailed description of the cave.
University of Pennsylvania site on the discovery of Altamira , text only.
Many images of Lascaux.
2. Carved and Painted Objects
http://www.netserves.com/moca/lectures/skuzpale.htm
Horse at Vogelherd cave
http://faculty.evansville.edu/rl29/art105/img/willendorf_venus.jpg
-Venus of Willendorf-carved limestone, c. 30,000-15,000 BC. Because of the importance of fertility, (infant mortality rates were high making it a necessity to have many children for survival) probably a fertility symbol. Done in the round versus in relief.
Image of the reindeer bone.
B. The New Stone Age
a. Jericho
http://faculty.evansville.edu/rl29/art105/img/jericho_skull.jpg
The Ancient Near East in the Neolithic Era (c. 7000-4500/4000 BC)
-transition from a hunter/gatherer society to an agrarian society.
Jericho -Oldest known city-8500-7500 BC. Jericho skulls had replications of the deceased sculpted onto the skull. Ancestor-worship. residents of Jericho buried dead family members under floor of household.
b. Catal Huyuk
Article on Catal Huyuk.
C. Neolithic Europe
http://www.netaxs.com/~tdo/trypil.html
http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/chariots/StrettwegDescription.html
http://ccwf.cc.utexas.edu/~cmw/1995/Basse-Yutz.htmla
http://www.sfu.ca/archaeology/museum/britain/archbr/graphics/dolmen.html
Dolmens and cromlechs
http://exn.ca/mysticplaces/Stonehenge.asp
http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/aburnham/eng/
http://web.infinito.it/utenti/m/malta_mega_temples/indxfram.html
Images from Easter Island.
Petroglyphs of Easter Island.
D. Neolithic America
http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/ancestors/woodland.html
http://greatserpentmound.com/
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